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125 Years Ago in China and Japan

China

Following the disastrous and tragic Taiping rebellion, the Manchu attempted to rebuild China in what was called the Self-Strengthening Movement, also called the Tongzhi Restoration, named for the emperor Tongzhi (ruled 1862-74). The real power in China was the young emperor's mother, the "Empress Dowager" Ci Xi (born 1835, died 1908). No woman in China could hold real political power as an emperor, and only by ruling through a male member of the family could Ci Xi push through her policies. However, the attempt to adopt European technology while maintaining traditional Manchu- Chinese institutions did not succeed. The movement was championed by scholar-generals like Li Hongzhang (1823-1901) and Zuo Zongtang (1812-85), who had fought with the government forces in the Taiping Rebellion. From 1861 to 1894, leaders such as these, now turned scholar-administrators, were responsible for establishing modern institutions, developing basic industries, communications, and transportation, and modernizing the military. But despite its leaders' accomplishments, the Self-Strengthening Movement did not recognize the significance of the political institutions and social theories that had fostered Western advances and innovations, and this led to the movement's failure. More territory and power was lost to the European powers of Russia, France and Britain, plus the United States. While the Uighurs were reconquered after their successful revolt, this was only possible due to British loans.

But worse was to come. Japan, having gone through its own modernization movement, defeated China in the war of 1894-95. The Treaty of Shimonoseki forced China to cede Taiwan and the Penghu Islands to Japan, pay a huge indemnity, permit the establishment of Japanese industries in four treaty ports, and recognize Japanese hegemony over Korea. Japan had become a colonial power in its own right, but only at the expense of the Chinese. In 1898 the British acquired a ninety-nine-year lease over the so-called New Territories of Kowloon, which increased the size of their Hong Kong colony.

These humiliations of the Manchu led to a serious anti-foreigner rebellion led by an offshoot of the White Lotus sect, called the I Ho Ch'uan (Fists in the Name of

Harmony and Justice), who came to be better known to the Euroepans as the Boxers. The rebellion breaks out in 1899 in north China, with Chinese Christians the first targets of violence. Some Manchu nobles hoped to use the rebellion to expel the Europeans, while other Manchu leaders thought a peasant revolt might be just as dangerous to them as to the hated colonial powers. Ci Xi herself attempted to follow a middle policy, secretly supporting the rebels, but without giving them open help.

However, in 1900, the Manchu capital, Beijing was attacked and occupied by the Boxers. A small joint-European military force was defeated, but then a much stronger military force, more than 19,000 men, was landed and marched on Beijing. The Boxers were defeated, and Ci Xi was forced to sign another humiliating peace. The whole rebellion was not put down until the end of 1901.

In 1904, hoping that a victorious small war would distract public criticism, the Tsar Nicholas attacked Japan over the control of Korea. Instead of the expected victories, the Japanese army and navy inflicted surprising and serious defeats on the Russians. Among the worst was the virtual annihilation of the Russian fleet at the battle of Tsushima by the Japanese admiral Togo, and the defeat of the Russian army at the battle of Mukden and the siege of Port Arthur. These victories made Japan the most powerful state in Asia. It was the first time in modern history that an Asian country had scored a decisive victory over a major European power, inspiring anti-European nationalist movements in much of colonial Asia.

CHINA - The following description of the court's return to Beijing

by Dr. H. H. Lowry

"The imperial party was carried on special trains on the railway to within two miles of the city wall. There an improvised station had been erected on the spot where the former buildings had been destroyed by the Boxers. Over the platform extended an awning of yellow silk. On one side of the platform were the tents for the accommodation of the emperor and the royal family; and on the other side were the tents for the provincial and metropolitan officials. The road thence to the palace was leveled and covered with fresh yellow earth.

Inside the city the foreign-drilled troops of Yuan Shih-k'ai lined each side of the street. The soldiers were dressed in heavy marching order, and made a fine appearance.

The Ch'ien-men great street was crowded with thousands of Chinese; but, unfortunately for them, just before the time appointed for the emperor to pass they were all unceremoniously driven from the street, and orders were given that all shop-doors should be closed. It was also expected that all windows would be curtained to prevent the people within being seen, but the execution of this order was easily evaded. A thin gauze covering was placed over the windows, through which the spectators could be as distinctly seen as before.

After the imperial baggage had passed, followed by the military escort of infantry and cavalry, with General Ma at their head, the first chair to appear was that of Prince Ching, preceded and followed by a large number of attendants on horseback. Shortly afterward the cry was passed along the street by the policemen that the emperor was approaching. The soldiers immediately kneeled and presented arms. It proved to be a false alarm, and after three of the emperor's horses, with yellow saddles and blankets on, had passed, the soldiers and police resumed their upright position.

As the emperor approached, there was perfect quiet on the street. Soldiers and police were again on their knees. He was borne by eight bearers. The chair was surrounded by an escort of a hundred or so of officials.

After a suitable interval came the empress dowager, surrounded by a much larger and more imposing cavalcade than accompanied the emperor. On her left rode Yuan Shih-k'ai, the viceroy of this province, and on her right Ts'en Ch'un-ch'uan, the governor of Shansi. It was reported that the empress dowager entered the city with fear and trembling, not knowing what foul trap the foreigners had laid for her capture, but certainly her face gave no such indication. She was attracted by the faces of so many foreign ladies at the windows of the dispensary, and turned toward them with an expression of the greatest interest.

Other chairs and carts contained the empress and members of the imperial family, and soon as they passed the crowds of officials and people filled the street from side to side. Often there were six carts abreast, and locomotion was almost impossible.

Inside the circular inclosure of the Ch'ien gate a halt was made, and the emperor entered the shrine of the God of War to worship. The empress dowager worshipped in both the temples -- that of the Goddess of Mercy as well as the God of War. She was attracted by the crowds of foreigners on the city wall watching the procession, and she stopped and bowed to them."

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