The
Manchu emperor of China, K'ang-hsi, ruled from 1661, when he
was just eight years old, to 1727. The very length of his reign
helped solidify Manchu rule, called the Qing dynasty by the
Chinese. K'ang-hsi actively supports Chinese arts and culture
and through this wins much support from the traditional Chinese
nobility. While the peasants still had few political rights,
the peaceful reign of K'ang-hsi sees agricultural production
rise, and with it a huge growth in population. The population
of China in 1650 is estimated to have been about 100 million.
By 1741, it had increased to 142 million people. Forty years
later there more than 240 million people, and in 1800, the total
had reached 300 million.
The Qing also devoted much energy to territorial expansion.
By 1696, part of Mongolia was annexed. In 1720, the Chinese
established their dominance over Tibet. After 1750, the Turkish
Uighur kingdom was conquered. Conflict with Russia along the
Amur River was finally settled by the Treaty of Kiakhta in 1727.
The Russian-Chinese border established at this time mostly follows
the existing border between Russia and Mongolia.
The longest reign of any Chinese emperor was that of Ch'ien-lung
(who ruled from 1736 until his death in 1799, although from
1796-99 his son was technically ruler), the grandson of K'ang-hsi.
Under his reign, much of ancient Chinese culture was preserved,
but many books considered unfavourable to the Manchu or those
that contained what were felt to be dangerous ideas were destroyed.
A number of writers and thinkers were also executed. Innovation
or any new ideas were generally suppressed by the Manchus, so
instead of growing, Chinese culture began to stagnate. However,
this is not to say all things were bad. The book Hung-lo men
("A Dream of Red Mansions") was written by Ts'ao Chan
around 1760, and many people consider this the greatest Chinese
novel of all time.
The end of Ch'ien-lung's reign saw growing unrest. The White
Lotus peasant rebellion broke out in 1795 (White Lotus was the
name of a secret society that had first fought against the Mongols).
It took nine years of warfare and great loss of life before
the rebellion was put down. The feared Manchu banners, since
their conquests of the early 1700s, showed they were no longer
a military force of much value, and the emperor had to recruit
a new army made up of Chinese militia.
Jesuit missionaries working in China translated many classic
Chinese books, and brought them to Europe. The influence of
these writings can be seen in the works of Voltaire and the
important 18th century English writer, Edward Gibbon.
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