The
War of the Spanish Succession, 1701-1714, sees France, Spain
and Bavaria on one side at war with England, the Dutch Republic
and the Austrian Empire on the other. The battle of Malplaquet
is fought in Belgium on September 9, 1709. With more than 100,000
soldiers on each side, it is the biggest and bloodiest battle
until 1812, and is still one of the worst battles in history.
40,000 soldiers were killed or wounded in just six hours of
fighting.
Johann Sebastian Bach, working in Leipzig, Saxony, becomes the
best known musician and composer of his time. Bach represents
the peak of what is called baroque music (his death in 1750
is in fact used to mark the end of the baroque period). Bach
blended complex musical patterns of notes, and these patterns
can be broken down and analyzed with mathematical precision.
The Brandenburg Concertos become some of his best known music.
This music was designed for larger and larger groups of musicians,
the symphony orchestra, which replaced the single singer or
musician, or small group of three or four musicians, popular
in the medieval period (something like the rock bands of today).
By the 1780s, Vienna in Austria has replaced Leipzig as the
musical capital of Europe. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart represents
a break with the baroque tradition, and heralds new musical
trends. These are fully developed by Ludwig von Beethoven, one
of the first composers of the "romantic" period.
If the paintings of the 17th century were notable for showing
scenes of everyday life, then those of the next century are
notable for showing an idealized, unrealistic view, what is
called the rococo style. For example, country scenes were popular,
but they do not show the hard reality of peasant life, but show
smiling shepherdesses in frilly gowns--hardly the kind of clothes
someone would need who lived out-of-doors most of their life.
Fragonard and Watteau in France, and Constable and Gainsborough
in England are representative of the new style. In architecture,
the rococo style was shown by highly ornate buildings, often
decorated with floral motifs.
The kingdom of England, called Great Britain or the United Kingdom
after the formal union with Scotland, becomes a world empire
after 1715. Britain is at war with France in the 1740s, and
again between 1756 to 1763, the Seven Years War. This time,
France, Austria and Russia are allied against the British and
Prussians. France is the main loser of the war, while Prussia
in eastern Germany becomes a major power. The small kingdom
of Prussia became the most powerful military state of central
Europe under King Frederick William, 1713-1740. Peasants are
conscripted--forced to serve as soldiers. Public education standards
are also increased. Like the Zulu soldiers, the Prussian troops
undergo rigorous training and harsh discipline. They can march
and shoot faster than almost any other soldiers in Europe. King
Frederick II, called "the Great" (he ruled 1740-1786),
becomes the most famous general of the age. In spite of facing
the combined armies of Austria, France and Russia, Prussia not
only survives the Seven Years War, but increases its power.
James Watt in Britain increases the efficiency of the steam
engine in 1769, what is seen as the start of the Industrial
Revolution. The industrial revolution did not happen all at
once, but was a gradual process. Wind powered saw mills outside
of Amsterdam allowed the Dutch to mass produce ships before
1700, an early form of "industrialization". But steam
power allowed for more powerful machines and the rapid expansion
of these early industries. Part of the general revolution was
the transformation from wood-burning to coal-burning to heat
the steam boilers. Thick dark clouds of smoke from coal-powered
furnaces marks the beginning of modern air pollution. Transportation
and manufacturing were revolutionized by steam power.
Cloth weaving in England was the first of the new industries.
Mechanized looms or weaving machines put many people who made
cloth on hand looms out of work. In England, Scotland and Ireland,
peasants were forced off their land so more sheep could be raised
to produce wool for the machine looms. Many of these people
were forced to move to North America where they forced the native
peoples from their land. Some of those who stayed in ireland
and Scotland rebelled and were killed.
Many others starved to death.
Coal-burning factories came at the same time as new economic
theories, called "laissez-faire", a French term that
essentially means "left alone". Economists such as
Adam Smith, argued government control of the economy (through
regulations and taxation) was bad and that a laissez-faire or
free economy would bring wealth for all, including workers.
But this did not occur. Other famous economists were Thomas
Malthus, who wrote about the dangers of over-population, and
David Ricardo. He argued that because of the pressure of population,
too many people competing for the available jobs, wages would
always be low.
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