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3,000 Years Ago in West & North Europe

The classic period of Celtic history is divided into two periods, named after two major archaeological digs, Hallstatt (in Austria), dated from 700-450 BC, and La Tene (in Switzerland), 450-100 BC. But there is no distinct dividing line between the two periods or the even earlier "Urnfield" period. The cemetery excavations at Hallstatt showed a culture that buried the dead in wood-lined chambers covered by an earth mound. Along with the body were many objects used in life, such as gold jewellery with amber and coral, swords, articles of bronze and iron, cups and huge urns, imported articles from Greece and other areas, and four-wheeled chariots. The La Tene site showed new types of sword, chariot and jewellery.

A distinctive Celtic art style can be identified, using swirling curves and geometric shapes in abstract designs. Animal and human forms are stylized, unlike Greek and Roman art with its emphasis on realism. Celtic art was not just a poor attempt to copy Greek art, but showed the Celts had an entirely different way of looking at the world.

The Celts believed in an immortal soul, and that death was the passage into the "Otherword", a world parallel and similar to this one. After a time in the Otherworld, a person would be reborn into this one, and so the cycle would continue. Druids were a special caste of nobles, both men and women. They acted as judges, priests and bards. Bards were like a living library, who would orally recite knowledge of history, science and laws. The Celts were not illiterate and used Greek letters for writing, but believed such knowledge was too important to write down where anyone could read it.

The right-hand drawing may now be dressed as a Celtic cavalryman, but originates as a *Roman* cavalryman (on p. 24 of Peter Connolly's book "Tiberius Claudius Maximus - The Cavalryman", published in 1988 by Oxford University Press, (c) Peter Connolly 1988).

The reconstructed (Roman) saddle may be found on p. 31 of the same book, (or from p. 235 of Connolly's "Greece and Rome at War", published in 1998 by Greenhill Books, (c) Peter Connolly 1981, 1998.).